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Table 3 Mean difference in BMI z-score and 95% confidence intervals for each early life risk factors from linear regression models

From: The relationship between early life modifiable risk factors for childhood obesity, ethnicity and body mass index at age 3 years: findings from the Born in Bradford birth cohort study

Risk factor

Category

Model 1a

Model 2b

Model 3c

Mean difference

95% CI

Mean difference

95% CI

Mean difference

95% CI

Pregnancy risk factors

 Smoked during pregnancy

No

0

-

0

-

0

-

Yes

0.29

(0.11, 0.47)

0.21

(0.01, 0.41)

0.33

(0.13, 0.53)

 Gestational diabetes

No

0

-

0

-

0

-

Yes

−0.13

(−0.35, 0.09)

−0.13

(−0.35, 0.10)

−0.11

(−0.33, 0.11)

 Maternal booking BMI

Underweight/normal

0

-

0

-

0

-

Overweight

0.27

(0.12, 0.42)

0.26

(0.11, 0.42)

0.23

(0.08, 0.38)

Obese

0.48

(0.31, 0.66)

0.45

(0.27, 0.63)

0.37

(0.19, 0.55)

Postnatal risk factors

 Duration of any breastfeeding

Never

0

-

0

-

0

-

1 day to 1 month

0.22

(0.09, 0.40)

0.23

(0.06, 0.41)

0.22

(0.05, 0.40)

1 to 4 months

0.08

(−0.12, 0.27)

0.16

(−0.04, 0.36)

0.14

(−0.06, 0.33)

4+ months

0.04

(−0.14, 0.22)

0.05

(−0.14, 0.23)

0.06

(−0.12, 0.24)

 Weaned <17 weeks

No

0

-

0

-

0

-

Yes

0.13

(−0.02, 0.29)

0.05

(−0.11, 0.20)

−0.05

(−0.21, 0.10)

 Daily protein intake

Per 1SD increase

0.08

(0.01, 0.15)

0.05

(−0.02, 0.12)

0.02

(−0.12, 0.15)

 Daily total energy

Per 1SD increase

0.08

(0.01, 0.14)

0.05

(−0.02, 0.12)

0.04

(−0.10, 0.17)

 Caregivers feeding style

Authoritative

0

-

0

-

0

-

Authoritarian

−0.11

(−0.32, 0.10)

−0.07

(−0.27, 0.14)

−0.10

(−0.31, 0.11)

Indulgent

0.24

(0.04, 0.45)

0.19

(−0.01, 0.40)

0.15

(−0.06, 0.36)

Uninvolved

0.06

(−0.18, 0.29)

0.04

(−0.19, 0.27)

0.05

(−0.18, 0.28)

 Parental self-efficacy

High

0

-

0

-

0

-

Lower scores (bottom quintile)

−0.10

(−0.27, 0.07)

−0.13

(−0.30, 0.04)

−0.18

(−0.35, 0.00)

Parental warmth

High

0

-

0

-

0

-

Lower scores (bottom quintile)

0.13

(−0.02, 0.29)

0.19

(0.03, 0.34)

0.21

(0.05, 0.36)

Hostile parenting

Low

0

-

0

-

0

-

Higher scores (top quintile)

0.11

(−0.05, 0.26)

0.09

(−0.06, 0.25)

0.17

(0.01, 0.33)

Infant TV viewing time

None

0

-

0

-

0

-

0-1 hour

−0.16

(−0.44, 0.11)

−0.18

(−0.45, 0.09)

−0.15

(−0.41, 0.12)

1-2 hours

−0.06

(−0.35, 0.22)

−0.07

(−0.35, 0.21)

−0.02

(−0.30, 0.25)

>2 hours

−0.17

(−0.45, 0.11)

−0.11

(−0.38, 0.17)

−0.02

(−0.30, 0.25)

Maternal TV viewing time

0-2 hours

0

-

0

-

0

-

2-4 hours

0.03

(−0.12, 0.18)

−0.02

(−0.16, 0.13)

−0.08

(−0.23, 0.07)

>4 hours

−0.26

(−0.46, −0.05)

−0.29

(−0.49, −0.08)

−0.39

(−0.60, −0.18)

Infant sleep duration

<11 hours

0.03

(−0.16, 0.23)

0.10

(−0.10, 0.29)

0.11

(−0.08, 0.30)

11-12 hours

0.08

(−0.10, 0.26)

0.07

(−0.11, 0.24)

0.04

(−0.14, 0.21)

12-13 hours

0

-

0

-

0

-

13+ hours

−0.06

(−0.25, 0.12)

−0.01

(−0.19, 0.18)

−0.02

(−0.20, 0.17)

Maternal activity level

Sedentary

0

-

0

-

0

-

Insufficiently active

0.06

(−0.13, 0.26)

0.04

(−0.15, 0.23)

0.08

(−0.11, 0.27)

Sufficiently active

0.20

(0.00, 0.40)

0.07

(−0.13, 0.27)

0.11

(−0.09, 0.31)

  1. aModel 1: unadjusted.
  2. bModel 2: pregnancy risk factors adjusted for ethnicity, infant sex, maternal age, maternal highest educational qualification, parity. Postnatal risk factors additionally adjusted for birthweight, gestational age at delivery and mode of delivery.
  3. cModel 3: adjusted for all risk factors and ethnicity, infant sex, maternal age, maternal highest educational qualification, parity, birthweight, gestational age at delivery and mode of delivery.